Relative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns (The student who studies hardest usually does the best.). The word who connects or relates the subject, student, to the verb within the dependent clause (studies). Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most Frequently Asked Questions about English grammar. For help with which/that, refer to the Notorious Confusables article on those words (including the hyperlink to Michael Quinion's article on this usage and the links to relevant quizzes). Generally, we use "which" to introduce clauses that are parenthetical in nature (i.e., that can be removed from the sentence without changing the essential meaning of the sentence). For that reason, a "which clause" is often set off with a comma or a pair of commas. "That clauses," on the other hand, are usually deemed indispensable for the meaning of a sentence and are not set off with commas. The pronoun which refers to things; who (and its forms) refers to people; that usually refers to things, but it can also refer to people in a general kind of way. For help with who/whom refer to the section on Consistency. We also recommend that you take the quizzes on the use of who and whom at the end of that section.

The expanded form of the relative pronouns — whoever, whomever, whatever — are known as indefinite relative pronouns. A couple of sample sentences should suffice to demonstrate why they are called "indefinite":
  • The coach will select whomever he pleases.
  • He seemed to say whatever came to mind.
  • Whoever crosses this line first will win the race.

Pronouns are words like I, me (personal pronouns) or my, mine (possessive pronouns).
Personal Pronouns Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns    Reflexive Pronouns
subject form     object form         possessive adjective      possessive pronoun
I       me              my            mine           myself
you      you              your            yours          yourself
he      him              his            his          himself
she      her              her            hers          herself
it      it              its            its          itself
we     us              our            ours          ourselves
you you                                  your            yours          yourselves
they    them              their            theirs          themselves

Causative verb

Causative verb menunjukkan bahwa seseorang/sesuatu secara tidak langsung bertanggung jawab terhadap sebuah tindakan. Subjek tidak melakukan tindakan itu sendiri, tetapi justru menyebabkan seseorang/sesuatu yang lain melakukannya. Contoh:
- Yesterday I had my hair cut.
Pembicara pada kalimat diatas tidak memotong sendiri rambutnya, tetapi justru membuat orang lain melakukannya - Saya “menyebabkan” mereka memotong rambut saya.
Have
Have merupakan causative verb yang umum. Ketimbang melakukan sesuatu dengan diri kita sendiri, kita “menyuruh” orang yang lain untuk melakukannya. Bentuknya sebagai berikut:
Kata kerja “to have” + objek + past participle (verb 3). Contoh:
- I had my jacket cleaned yesterday.
- Did you have your computer fixed?
Terkadang kita menggunakan have sebagai causative verb ketika kita ingin melakukan tindakan oleh diri kita sendiri. Contoh:
- When will the report be ready? I’ll do it by tomorrow morning. >>
- When will the report be ready? I’ll have it done by tomorrow morning.
Dengan menggunakan causative, kalimat ke-dua diatas mengalihkan perhatian dari pelaku tindakan, dan lebih memberikan perhatian kepada tindakan yang sedang dilakukan. Ini kedengaran sopan dan profesional.
Get
Get sering digunakan ketimbang have. Contoh:
  • I got my computer fixed - I had my computer fixed. Kedua kalimat ini maknanya sama.
  • I got my jacket cleaned. - I had my jacket cleaned. Kedua kalimat ini maknanya sama.
Causative verbs sering digunakan bersama dengan pengalaman-pengalaman negatif. Pada situasi-situasi ini lebih umum menggunakan have. Contoh:
  • I had my wallet stolen. (Saya sebenarnya tidak menyebabkan dompet saya dicuri - seseorang mencuri dompet saya dariku)
  • She had her window smashed.
Let
Let digunakan untuk membolehkan seseorang melakukan sesuatu. Bentuknya adalah let + orang + verb. Contoh:
  • John let me drive his new car.
  • Will your parents let you go to the party?
  • I don’t know if my boss will let me take the day off.
Make
Make digunakan untuk memaksa seseorang melakukan sesuatu. Bentuknya adalah make + orang + verb. Contoh:
  • My teacher made me apologize for what I had said.
  • Did somebody make you wear that ugly hat?
  • She made her children do their homework.


clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest
We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1) adjectives with one syllable

cleancleanercleanest
newnewernewest
cheapcheapercheapest

2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

dirtydirtierdirtiest
easyeasiereasiest
happyhappierhappiest
prettyprettierprettiest

2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

clevercleverercleverest

2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

simplesimplersimplest

2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

narrownarrowernarrowest


Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

largelargerlargestleave out the silent -e
bigbiggerbiggestDouble the consonant after short vowel
sadsaddersaddest
dirtydirtierdirtiestChange -y to -i (consonant before -y)
shyshyershyestHere -y is not changed to -i.
(although consonant before -y)


difficult - more difficult - (the) most difficult
all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables - see
2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

goodbetterbest 
badworseworst 
muchmoremostuncountable nouns
manymoremostcountable nouns
littlelessleast 
littlesmallersmallest 


Some ajdectives have two possible forms of comparison.
commoncommoner / more commoncommonest / most common
likelylikelier / more likelylikeliest / most likely
pleasantpleasanter / more pleasantpleasantest / most pleasant
politepoliter / more politepolitest / most polite
simplesimpler / more simplesimplest / most simple
stupidstupider / more stupidstupidest / most stupid
subtlesubtler / more subtlesubtlest
suresurer / more suresurest / most sure


Difference in meaning with adjectives:

farfartherfarthestdistance
furtherfurthestdistance or
time
latelaterlatest 
latterx 
xlast 
oldolderoldestpeople and things
eldereldestpeople (family)
nearnearernearestdistance
xnextorder

Counterfactual

In these constructions, the condition clause expresses a condition that is known to be false, or presented as unlikely. The result clause contains a conditional verb form consisting of would (or could, should, might) plus a main verb in the base form (infinitive without to).
The contrary-to-fact present conditional, often referred to as the "second conditional" or "conditional 2", is used to refer to a current state or event that is known to be false or improbable. The past subjunctive (or in colloquial English, simply the past tense) must be used:
If she were [colloq. was] at work today, she would know how to deal with this client.
If I were [colloq. was] the king, I could have you thrown in the dungeon.
The same structure can be used to refer to a future state or event:
If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.
If he said that to me, I would run away.
In many cases, when referring to future events, the difference between a realis and irrealis conditional is very slight:
(realis) If you leave now, you can still catch your train.
(irrealis) If you left now, you could still catch your train.
The contrary-to-fact past conditional (sometime referred to as the "third" conditional, conditional 3) is used to refer to contrary-to-fact past events. The pluperfect (or past perfect) is used in the condition clause.
If you had called me, I would have come.
If you had done your job properly, we wouldn't be in this mess now.
Some varieties of English regularly use would (often shortened to (I)'d) and would have (often shortened to (I)'d have) in counterfactual condition clauses, but this is often considered non-standard: If you'd leave now, you'd be on time. (conditional 2.) / If you (would)'ve told me, we could've done something about it. (conditional 3.) Such use of would is widespread especially in spoken US English in all sectors of society, but these forms are not usually used in more formal writing. Nevertheless, some reliable sources simply label this usage as acceptable US English and no longer label it as colloquial.[3][4]
There are exceptions, however, where would is used in British English too in seemingly counterfactual conditions, but these can usually be interpreted as a modal use of would: If you would listen to me once in a while, you might learn something. (conditional 2.) [1][2] In cases in which the action in the if clause takes place after that in the main clause, use of would in counterfactual conditions is however considered standard and correct usage in even formal UK and US usage: If it would make Bill happy, I'd [I would] give him the money.[1]
Should can appear in the condition clause to refer to a future event presented as possible, but unlikely, undesirable, or otherwise "remote": If I should die before I wake, …, If you should ever find yourself in such a situation, …