Relative Pronouns

• The coach will select whomever he pleases.
• He seemed to say whatever came to mind.
• Whoever crosses this line first will win the race.

Pronouns are words like I, me (personal pronouns) or my, mine (possessive pronouns).

Personal Pronouns		Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns		Reflexive Pronouns
subject form	object form	possessive adjective	possessive pronoun
I	me	my	mine	myself
you	you	your	yours	yourself
he	him	his	his	himself
she	her	her	hers	herself
it	it	its	its	itself
we	us	our	ours	ourselves
you	you	your	yours	yourselves
they	them	their	theirs	themselves

Causative verb menunjukkan bahwa seseorang/sesuatu secara tidak langsung bertanggung jawab terhadap sebuah tindakan. Subjek tidak melakukan tindakan itu sendiri, tetapi justru menyebabkan seseorang/sesuatu yang lain melakukannya. Contoh:
- Yesterday I had my hair cut.
Pembicara pada kalimat diatas tidak memotong sendiri rambutnya, tetapi justru membuat orang lain melakukannya - Saya “menyebabkan” mereka memotong rambut saya.
Have
Have merupakan causative verb yang umum. Ketimbang melakukan sesuatu dengan diri kita sendiri, kita “menyuruh” orang yang lain untuk melakukannya. Bentuknya sebagai berikut:
Kata kerja “to have” + objek + past participle (verb 3). Contoh:
- I had my jacket cleaned yesterday.
- Did you have your computer fixed?
Terkadang kita menggunakan have sebagai causative verb ketika kita ingin melakukan tindakan oleh diri kita sendiri. Contoh:
- When will the report be ready? I’ll do it by tomorrow morning. >>
- When will the report be ready? I’ll have it done by tomorrow morning.
Dengan menggunakan causative, kalimat ke-dua diatas mengalihkan perhatian dari pelaku tindakan, dan lebih memberikan perhatian kepada tindakan yang sedang dilakukan. Ini kedengaran sopan dan profesional.
Get
Get sering digunakan ketimbang have. Contoh:

• I got my computer fixed - I had my computer fixed. Kedua kalimat ini maknanya sama.
• I got my jacket cleaned. - I had my jacket cleaned. Kedua kalimat ini maknanya sama.

Causative verbs sering digunakan bersama dengan pengalaman-pengalaman negatif. Pada situasi-situasi ini lebih umum menggunakan have. Contoh:

• I had my wallet stolen. (Saya sebenarnya tidak menyebabkan dompet saya dicuri - seseorang mencuri dompet saya dariku)
• She had her window smashed.

Let
Let digunakan untuk membolehkan seseorang melakukan sesuatu. Bentuknya adalah let + orang + verb. Contoh:

• John let me drive his new car.
• Will your parents let you go to the party?
• I don’t know if my boss will let me take the day off.

Make
Make digunakan untuk memaksa seseorang melakukan sesuatu. Bentuknya adalah make + orang + verb. Contoh:

• My teacher made me apologize for what I had said.
• Did somebody make you wear that ugly hat?
• She made her children do their homework.

 Comparison with -er/-est

1) adjectives with one syllable

clean	cleaner	cleanest
new	newer	newest
cheap	cheaper	cheapest

2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

dirty	dirtier	dirtiest
easy	easier	easiest
happy	happier	happiest
pretty	prettier	prettiest

2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

clever

cleverer

cleverest

2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

simple

simpler

simplest

2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

narrow

narrower

narrowest

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Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

large	larger	largest	leave out the silent -e
big	bigger	biggest	Double the consonant after short vowel
sad	sadder	saddest
dirty	dirtier	dirtiest	Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)
shy	shyer	shyest	Here -y is not changed to -i. (although consonant before -y)

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B - Comparison with more - most

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C - Irregular adjectives

good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
much	more	most	uncountable nouns
many	more	most	countable nouns
little	less	least
little	smaller	smallest

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D - Special adjectives

common	commoner / more common	commonest / most common
likely	likelier / more likely	likeliest / most likely
pleasant	pleasanter / more pleasant	pleasantest / most pleasant
polite	politer / more polite	politest / most polite
simple	simpler / more simple	simplest / most simple
stupid	stupider / more stupid	stupidest / most stupid
subtle	subtler / more subtle	subtlest
sure	surer / more sure	surest / most sure

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Difference in meaning with adjectives:

far	farther	farthest	distance
	further	furthest	distance or time
late	later	latest
	latter	x
	x	last
old	older	oldest	people and things
	elder	eldest	people (family)
near	nearer	nearest	distance
	x	next	order

Counterfactual

In these constructions, the condition clause expresses a condition that is known to be false, or presented as unlikely. The result clause contains a conditional verb form consisting of would (or could, should, might) plus a main verb in the base form (infinitive without to).
The contrary-to-fact present conditional, often referred to as the "second conditional" or "conditional 2", is used to refer to a current state or event that is known to be false or improbable. The past subjunctive (or in colloquial English, simply the past tense) must be used:

If she were [colloq. was] at work today, she would know how to deal with this client.

If I were [colloq. was] the king, I could have you thrown in the dungeon.

The same structure can be used to refer to a future state or event:

If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.

If he said that to me, I would run away.

In many cases, when referring to future events, the difference between a realis and irrealis conditional is very slight:

(realis) If you leave now, you can still catch your train.

(irrealis) If you left now, you could still catch your train.

The contrary-to-fact past conditional (sometime referred to as the "third" conditional, conditional 3) is used to refer to contrary-to-fact past events. The pluperfect (or past perfect) is used in the condition clause.

If you had called me, I would have come.

If you had done your job properly, we wouldn't be in this mess now.

Some varieties of English regularly use would (often shortened to (I)'d) and would have (often shortened to (I)'d have) in counterfactual condition clauses, but this is often considered non-standard: If you'd leave now, you'd be on time. (conditional 2.) / If you (would)'ve told me, we could've done something about it. (conditional 3.) Such use of would is widespread especially in spoken US English in all sectors of society, but these forms are not usually used in more formal writing. Nevertheless, some reliable sources simply label this usage as acceptable US English and no longer label it as colloquial.^[3][4]
There are exceptions, however, where would is used in British English too in seemingly counterfactual conditions, but these can usually be interpreted as a modal use of would: If you would listen to me once in a while, you might learn something. (conditional 2.) ^[1][2] In cases in which the action in the if clause takes place after that in the main clause, use of would in counterfactual conditions is however considered standard and correct usage in even formal UK and US usage: If it would make Bill happy, I'd [I would] give him the money.^[1]
Should can appear in the condition clause to refer to a future event presented as possible, but unlikely, undesirable, or otherwise "remote": If I should die before I wake, …, If you should ever find yourself in such a situation, …